DELHI SULTANATE – EXPANSION AND DECLINE

DELHI SULTANATE – EXPANSION AND DECLINE 

(129OA.D.-1320A.D.) ALAUDDIN KHILJI 

(KHILJI DYNASTY) 

INTRODUCTION:

Following the end of the end of the slave dynasty in 1290, a new dynasty, known as the Khilji dynasty (1290-1320) came to power at Delhi. The founder of the Khilji dynasty was Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji. He overthrew the last of the slave sultans, Kaiqubad. However, the greatest ruler of this dynasty was Alauddin Khilji under whom the Delhi Sultanate expanded far and wide in the Indian sub-continent.

ALAUDDIN’S RISE TO POWER: 

Alauddin was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji. He was appointed as the governor of Kara-Manikpur near Allahabad. He was a very active and spirited soldier and known to be ambitious. As the governor of Kara-Manikpur, Alauddin made satisfactory arrangements for the administration of the province. After obtaining the approval of Jalauddin Firuz Khilji, Alauddin attacked Bhilsa in Malwa and systemically plundered the treasures of the temples and rich merchants. He sent a part of the loot to the sultan. As a mark of his appreciation, the sultan appointed Alauddin as ariz-i-mumalik and granted the governorship of Awadh in addition to that of Kara-Manikpur. 

Encouraged by his success against Bhilsa, Alauddin planned an expedition to Devagiri, the capital of the Yadava kingdom in the Deccan. With an army of eight thousand cavalry Alauddin proceeded towards Devagiri. Alauddin swept across the Yadava territory and appeared all of a sudden in the northern frontier of Devagiri. In spite of gallant resistance the Yadava ruler Ramachandra Deva was defeated and was forced to make peace with the invader. The Yadava king surrendered to the invader huge amount of gold, pearls and other precious articles. On his return from the southern expedition Shankara Deva, son of Ramachandra Deva, contrary to the advice of his father, attacked Alauddin’s army. However, he could not withstand the superior forces of the invaders. Alauddin compelled Ramachandra Deva to cede to him the province of Elichpur and to pay a very huge indemnity. With this unprecedented success and colossal war booty, Alauddin returned to Kara 

ALAUDDIN’S ACCESSION TO THE THRONE OF DELHI: 

Alauddin Khilji ascended the throne of Delhi by treacherously murdering Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji, who was also his uncle and father-in-law. After overcoming all opposition to his accession Alauddin entered Delhi and was formally crowned in the Red Palace of Balban on 3 October 1296. He conciliated the nobles and the people by lavishly distributing gold and wealth brought from Devagiri. He took severe measures against the family of the late sultan so that they should not have political ambitions. Alauddin secured the loyalty of his followers by distributing gold, offices and honours to them. In this manner he commanded unstinted loyalty and support from Ulugh Khan, Alap Khan, Zafar Khan and Nusrat Khan. Titles, higher posts and increments in salary were granted to others. A large invading army of the Mongols was defeated on the bank of the Sutlej in 1298. Alauddin eliminated some of the old nobles who had deserted the sultan and joined his rank. He believed that such people who could desert one master and join another were not trustworthy. Due to his severe measures, Alauddin succeeded in overcoming the initial difficulties and establishing himself on the throne of Delhi. 

DREAM OF WORLD CONQUEST: 

The initial success against the rebels and the Mongol invaders fired the ambition of Alauddin Khilji. Being confident of his inherent ability he dreamt of imitating Prophet Muhammad and Alexander the Great by founding a religion and conquering the world. Alauddin sought the advice of Ala-ul-Mulk, the kotwal of Delhi and uncle of historian Barani, for his grand project. Ala-ul-Mulk boldly but politely gave his opinion that prophetic and royal functions were mutually exclusive to each other. Instead of dreaming of world conquest, the kotwal advised Alauddin to think of conquering the unsubdued Hindu princes of Northern India and the independent Hindu states outside the frontiers of the Delhi Sultanate and to secure the northwestern frontiers of India by resisting the Mongol invasions. It goes to the credit of Alauddin that he accepted the frank counsel of Ala-ul-Mulk. However, he could not resist the temptation of calling himself the ‘Second Alexander’ on his coins. Ala-ul-Mulk advised the sultan not to dabble in religion but concern himself with the welfare of his subjects. The sultan gave up the idea of starting a new religion. He separated religion from politics by reducing the influence of the ulemas. 

IMPERIAL EXPANSION: 

The imperial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate begins with the accession of Alauddin Khilji. He was of the opinion that defence, expansion and consolidation could be undertaken simultaneously. Since the death of Iltutmish serious attempts to annex new territories to the sultanate had not been undertaken. Alauddin set his eyes on the conquest of Northern India. The armies of the sultanate once again began to march in different directions to conquer and plunder. 

 Gujarat: 

Gujarat was flourishing kingdom with its capital at Anhilwara. Fertility of the soil and a liberal policy towards trade and industry had made the region very prosperous. Arab and Persian traders frequented the ports of Gujarat and carried Indian goods to West Asia and the Mediterranean ports. For the conquest of Gujarat, Alauddin planned a two-pronged attack. An army under Nusrat Khan proceeded across Rajasthan. Another army led by Ulugh Khan advanced from Sindh. Meeting near the frontier of Gujarat, the joint army advanced towards Anhilwara. The Vaghela ruler of Gujarat, Rai Karan along with his four years old daughter Devala Devi fled to Devagiri. His queen Kamala Devi was taken as a captive to Delhi and was later added to the harem of the Sultan. The invading armies plundered the rich merchants of Cambay Surat, Anhilwara, Cambay and Somnath. In the course of loot and arson many temples including the famous shrine of Somnath were desecrated. The lingam in the Somnath temple, erected as a substitute for that broken by Mahmud Ghazni, was sent to Delhi. Towns and villages were laid waste and thousands of people were killed or enslaved. Following the conquest and plunder Gujarat became a province of the Delhi Sultanate and Alap Khan was appointed its governor. 

Ranthambhor: 

In 1299, Alauddin turned his attention towards the conquest of Rajasthan. As a prelude to the imperial expansion into Rajasthan, he decided to capture the fortress of Ranthambhor, which was formerly a Muslim outpost in that region. At that time Ranthambhor was ruled by Hamir Deva, the Chauhan ruler. The pretext to the invasion of Ranthambhor was the asylum given by Hamir Deva to some of the rebellious ‘New Muslims.’ However, the real reason was the strategic importance of the fort. A powerful army commanded by Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan was dispatched to Ranthambhor. The fort was besieged. In the course of the siege, Nusrat Khan was killed and the Rajputs succeeded in recapturing the fort. Following these reverses, Alauddin proceeded to Ranthambhor in person. In spite of his presence the siege of Ranthambhor continued for a year. Hamir Deva’s prime minister, Ranmal and his general Ratipal betrayed their master. Finally, the fort was captured in July 1301. Rana Hamir Deva and his family were put to death. After appointing Ulugh Khan in charge of the fort, Alauddin returned to the capital. 

Mewar: 

Following his success against Ranthambhor Alauddin turned his attention towards the conquest of Mewar. The Guhilots of Mewar had come into conflict with the sultans of Delhi as different times during the thirteenth century. However, prior to Alauddin no serious attempt was made to annex this small Rajput kingdom. Mewar, with its capital at Chittor was well protected by nature with a long chain of hills and deep forests. The fort of Chittor, cut from a rock located on top of a hill was considered to be impregnable. 

The conquest of the fort of Chittor was important to the Delhi Sultanate as it lay on the route to Gujarat. With a powerful army Alauddin invaded Mewar and besieged the fort of Chittor. The fort could be captured after a siege of eight months. The ruler of Mewar, Rana Ratan Singh put up stiff resistance. But in the face of an onslaught of Alauddin the Rana was forced to submit. The women performed the jauhar to save their honour. Incensed at the strong resistance of the Rajputs, Alauddin ordered the general massacre of the civilian population. According to Amir Khusrau, who was an eyewitness, nearly 30,000 Rajputs were killed in one day. After the conquest of Chittor Alauddin appointed his eldest son, Khizr Khan as the governor of the fort, which was renamed as Khizrbad. 

One of the chief motives ascribed to Alauddin for the invasion of Mewar was his desire to acquire the possession of Padmini, the peerless queen of Rana Ratan Singh. In his Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan a summary of the Rajput chronicles, Tod maintains that the principal motive of Alauddin Khilji’s invasion of Mewar was to secure the beautiful wife of Bhim Singh, the Rana of Mewar. However, the name of Rana was Ratan Singh and not Bhim Singh. It is also important to note that the legend of Padmini was a literary imagination of Malik Muhammad Jayasi, the author of Padmavat, written in 1540. He attempted to give the Padmini episode a historical interpretation. Modern writers, like G.H. Ojha, Dr. K.S. Lal and others have rejected the historical relevance of the Padmini episode. However, Dr. A.L. Srivastava is inclined to accept the correctness of the Jayasi legend. 

 Central India: 

The brilliant victories of Alauddin Khilji over Ranthambhor and Chittor frightened other states of Rajaputana into a willing submission to the sultan. They agreed to pay an annual tribute to Delhi. In 1305, Alauddin sent a military force for the conquest of Malwa. Initially the ruler of Malwa, Mahlakdeva resisted the invaders. But the superior forces of Delhi overpowered Mahlakdeva and conquered the region. Following the annexation of Malwa to the Delhi Sultanate Alauddin appointed Ain-ul-Mulk as the governor of the province. 

After the conquest of Malwa, Alauddin led an army against the ruler of Siwana, Raja Sataldeva. The siege of Siwana lasted for a long time. Finally, the Rajputs were defeated and a large part of  the kingdom was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate. Malik Kamaluddin was given the charge of Siwana. In 1311, Alauddin sent an expedition to Jalor for its annexation. Initially the sultanate army suffered some reverses. But with the arrival of reinforcement the Rajputs were defeated and Jalor was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate. 

Alauddin completed the conquest of Northern India. According to Tod, “The entire agnikula race of the Rajputs, form Anhilwara to Deogiri accepted the Khilji suzerainty.” Alauddin’s imperial power extended over the whole of the northern region except Kashmir, Nepal, Assam and parts of northwestern Punjab. 

 DECCAN CAMPAIGNS OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI: 

Alauddin Khilji did not confine his conquest to the North India only. After achieving unprecedented success in his expeditions against the Rajput states of northern India, Alauddin decided to carry arms beyond the Vindhyas into the Deccan and South India. However, his southern campaigns were not intended to stretch the frontiers of the sultanate. Alauddin did not wish to supersede Hindu rule in the south by Muslim administration. His southern campaigns were mainly plundering raids. His chief motive was to utilize the resources of the south to further his imperialist ambition in the north. Thus, Alauddin Khilji’s invasion of the south was a continuation of his Devagiri adventure of 1294. 

Alauddin Khilji wanted to impress upon the Hindu rulers of the south his own power and might and by doing so he desired to check their possible hostility to his work and consolidating Muslim rule in northern India. Alauddin’s objective was clear from the instructions that he issued to Malik Kafur, the commander-in-chief of the southern expeditions. “If the Rai consented to surrender his treasure and jewels, elephants and horses, and also to send treasure and elephants in the following year, Malik Naib Kafur was to accept these terms... If he could not do this, he was... to bring the Rai with him to Delhi.” These instructions indicated that Alauddin was not an annexationist with regard to South India. He did not want to multiply centers of dissatisfaction and rebellion by pursuing a policy of territorial expansion in the south. He also realized that he would not be able to rule the Deccan from his base in the north. This manifests to statesmanlike quality of Alauddin Khilji. 

KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH: 

There were four principal kingdoms in the south when Alauddin invaded that region. The Yadavas, with their capital at Devagiri ruled the modern Maharashtra region south of the Vindhyas. They had subjugated the entire territory up to the river Krishna. Raja Ramachandra Deva was the Yadava ruler, who was a contemporary of Alauddin Khilji. The Kakatiyas were the southeastern neighbours of the Yadavas. Their capital was Warangal. The contemporary ruler was Pratap Rudra Deva II. To the south of Devagiri lay the kingdom of the Hoysalas whose capital was Dwarasamudra. At the time of Alauddin’s invasion of the Deccan, Vira Ballala III was the Hoysala ruler. In the far south there was the kingdom of the Pandyas with its capital at Madura. The contemporary ruler was Kulashekhar. 

The kingdoms of the Deccan and the south had become weak due to mutual warfare. Like the northern kingdoms, they had neglected the defence of their frontiers. Thus, it was easy to attack them. These kingdoms were rich and prosperous. The royal treasuries were full of gold and precious stones. Merchants and craftsmen had also grown rich. The temples had large amount of accumulated wealth due to strong religious sentiments of the people. It was, therefore, natural for a powerful ruler of the north to covet the wealth of the south and plan its conquest in the same way as the adventurers beyond the northwest frontiers of India had carried on plundering raids in Northern India. 

Subjugation of the Yadavas of Devagiri: 

The Yadava ruler, Ramachandra Deva had stopped paying annual tribute since three or four years. Besides, he provoked Alauddin by giving asylum to the ousted Vaghela ruler of Gujarat, Rai Karan and his daughter, Devala Devi. In order to subjugate the Yadavas of Devagiri, Alauddin dispatched Malik Kafur, one of the greatest generals of Alauddin at the head of a large army in 1301. Marching to the Yadava kingdom through Dhar in Central India, Malik Kafur reached Devagiri. After a feeble resistance Ramachandra Deva was compelled to sue for peace. A huge amount of booty along with the Vaghela princess, Devala Devi was sent to Delhi. The princess was later married to Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Alauddin in 1314. Their love is immortalized in the verses of Amir Khusrau. After the defeat and submission, Ramachandra Deva was taken to Delhi. He was treated well by Alauddin Khilji. The sultan conferred on him the title of rai-i-rayan and the district of Navasari in Gujarat was assigned to him as jagir. He was given one lakh gold peaces as gift by Alauddin. On his return to Devagiri, Ramachandra Deva remained a loyal vassal of Delhi. By conciliating the Yadava ruler, Alauddin Khilji found a reliable and suitable base for his imperial penetration of the south. Ramachandra Deva rendered valuable service to Malik Kafur during his southern expedition. 

Invasion of Warangal: 

In 1303, Alauddin Khilji had sent an army from Delhi to invade and plunder Warangal. But the Kakatiya ruler, Prataprudra Deva II, defeated the sultanate army. Alauddin was anxious to wipe out the disgrace of the defeat of his army. In 1309, after the pacification of the Yadava kingdom. Alauddin ordered Malik Kafur to subdue the Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal. Malik Kafur marched to Warangal in 1309. Ramachandra Deva of Devagiri rendered him useful service. On arrival at Warangal, Malik Kafur besieged the fort. The siege of Warangal continued for a long time. Ultimately Prataprudra Deva surrendered and paid a huge tribute of 100 elephants, 7000 horses and precious articles. He promised to send an equal amount of tribute in future years as well. Amongst the precious stones was the famous kohinoor. After his success against Warangal, Malik Kafur returned to the capital in 1310 laden with war-booty which, according to Amir Khusrau, “a thousand camels groaning under the weight of the treasure.” 

 Expedition to Dwarasamudra: 

Malik Kafur’s third expedition in the Deccan was directed against Dwarasamudra. In 1311, passing through Devagiri, where Shankara Deva (Singhana) had succeeded his father, Ramachandra Deva. After establishing a garrison at Jalna on the Godavari to protect his line of communication with Delhi, Malik Kafur reached Dwarasamudra. The Hoysala ruler, Vira Ballala III, who had gone to the south to participate in the civil was raging in the Pandya kingdom, was taken by surprise. On receiving the news of the invasion of his kingdom by Malik Kafur, he hastily returned and offered resistance. He found that he was no match to the invaders from the north. Vira Ballala III made peace with Malik Kafur and agreed to pay tribute to the sultan 

Campaign to Madura (Mabar): 

The Muslim historians referred the Pandya kingdom as Mabar. The ongoing civil war between the Pandya princes gave an opportunity to Malik Kafur to invade the kingdom. The civil war was between the two sons of the Pandyan king, Kulashekara, Sundar Pandya, his legitimate son and Vira Pandya, his illegitimate but favourite son. Sundar Pandya murdered his father and seized the crown for himself. However, Vira Pandya who sought Malik Kafur’s help defeated him. Malik Kafur agreed to intervene and proceeded to Madura, the capital of the Pandyas in April 1311. But Vira Pandya had already evacuated the capital. Malik Kafur ransacked the city, plundered and desecrated the temples. From Madura, Malik Kafur proceeded up to Rameshwaram on the island of Pamban. He destroyed the temple there and built a mosque and named it after Alauddin. After his successful campaign in Madura, Malik Kafur returned to Delhi with an immense booty. The subjugation of the Pandyan kingdom signified the fall of the last of the southern kingdoms and the establishment of the Khilji paramountcy all over India. 

Last expedition to Devagiri: 

Following the death of Ramachandra Deva in 1312, his eldest son Shankara Deva succeeded him. He was strongly opposed to the submission to Delhi. He also had a personal grudge against Alauddin for seizing and taking away to Delhi, Devala Devi whom he wanted to marry. On his accession, Shankara Deva withheld the tribute to Delhi and thus, declared his independence. Alauddin once again dispatched Malik Kafur to the Deccan in 1313 to subjugate Shankara Deva. Malik Kafur defeated Shankara Deva, who was probably killed in the course of the battle. 

From Devagiri, Malik Kafur proceeded to Gulbarga and captured it. Next, he occupied the territory between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and established garrisons at Raichur and Mudgal. Thereafter he advanced westwards and took the seaports of Dabhol and Chaul. Malik Kafur also seized parts of Hoysala and Kakatiya territory. After his victories, Malik Kafur had no intention of returning to the north. He wanted to establish an independent kingdom in the south after the death of Alauddin. This was chiefly due to his quarrels with Khizr Khan and his mother Malika Jahan. However, Alauddin summoned Malik Kafur to Delhi. 

Recognizing Harpala Deva as the next ruler of Devagiri, Malik Kafur returned to Delhi in 1315. 

 MONGOL INVASIONS: 

According to contemporary accounts Alauddin repulsed more than a dozen Mongol invasions. Alauddin was fortunate to have the service of trusted and dedicated generals who were put in charge of the strategic northwest frontier. One of his ablest generals, Zafar Khan met the first three Mongol challenges boldly and repulsed the invaders in 1296, 1297 and again in 1299. However, in the last encounter, Zafar Khan lost his life. In 1303, another Mongol army, 1,20,000 strong, led by Targhi Khan invaded India. Alauddin, then engaged in the siege of Chittor, hastened back to Delhi but was unable to save the capital and its vicinity from the Mongol raids. Fortunately for the sultan the Mongols retreated as suddenly as they had appeared. It is said that Alauddin had beseeched Nizamuddin Auliya, the famous Sufi saint, to offer prayers to avert the crisis. Barani attributed the sudden withdrawal of the Mongols to the prayers of Nizamuddin Auliya. 

The advance of the Mongols up to the vicinity of the capital made Alauddin to realize the urgency of strengthening the northwest frontier. He repaired the old forts, set up new garrisons at strategic points in the Punjab, Multan and Sindh. He also entrusted the responsibility of guarding the frontier to a special unit of the army. Though these special measures improved the defense on the frontier they could not prevent the reappearance of the Mongols for the fourth time under the command of Ali Beg in 1305. Malik Kafur and Ghazi Malik who succeeded in inflicting heavy losses on them intercepted the Mongols on their way back from the Punjab. A large number of Mongols were taken prisoners. 

The last Mongol invasion took place in 1306 under Iqbalmanda and Kubak. However, their attempts were foiled by Malik Kafur and Gahzi Malik who first inflicted a severe defeat on Kubak and captured him. Next they turned against Iqbalmanda and attacked him in such vehemence that the entire army was almost exterminated and he could barely save his life. 

DELHI SULTANATE – EXPANSION AND DECLINE 

MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ

(TUGHLAQ DYNASTY) 

INTRODUCTION: 

Following the death of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty under tragic circumstance, his eldest son, Fakhruddin Muhammad Jauna Khan, who was also given the title of ulugh khan, ascended the throne of Delhi in 1325 with the title of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. His reign is one of the most striking epochs in the history of the sultanate. It was during his reign that a major part of the Deccan and South India passed under the direct rule of the Delhi Sultanate. It marked the climax of the territorial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate. Paradoxically, the decline of the sultanate also began at this time. 

MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351) 

Campaigns and Expeditions 

Rajputs: 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s policy towards the Rajputs was not particularly successful. His preoccupation in other regions or the apprehension of the organized strength of the Rajputs might have been the reasons for not attempting to subjugate the Rajput states. Mehdi Hussain is of the opinion that Muhammad did not attack the Rajputs because he was charitably disposed towards the Hindus. But the sultan’s relation with other Hindu rulers does not justify such an observation. Most probably, knowing that the previous sultans had failed to fully subjugate the Rajputs, Muhammad did not entangle himself with the difficult task of subduing them. He wanted to conquer and annex other regions of India and extend his empire. 

Mongol Invasion: 

The northwest frontier of the sultanate was threatened by a series of Mongol invasions, which occurred after Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had ordered the transfer of the capital to Devagiri. In about 1327, the ruler of Trans-Oxiana, Tarma Shirin, son of Daud, who had tried to conquer and annex India during the reign of Alauddin Khilji, led a Mongol invasion to India. According to an account of Firishta the Mongols overran Laghman and Multan and advanced towards Delhi. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was taken by surprise and finding resistance impossible made peace by paying a large sum of money to the invaders. The Mongols withdrew after having plundered vast areas in Gujarat and Sindh. The Neglect of the security of the northwest frontier was a serious flaw in the policy of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. 

Plan for the Conquest of Khurasan: 

Shortly after the withdrawal of the Mongols, the sultan formed an ambitious plan of sending an expedition of Trans-Oxiana, Khurasan and Iraq. For this purpose, according to Barani, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq collected 3, 37,000 troops who were paid the whole year’s salary in advance from the public treasury. But the army did not leave Delhi and the troops were disbanded. It would have been extremely difficult for the troops to pass through the snow bound passes and to make adequate provisions for transport and supplies. The situation within the country was also not conducive for Muhammad Bin Tughlaq to dream of such foreign adventure. A number of rebellions distracted the government. A severe famine was stalking the land in the Doab, and the sultanate army neither had competent leaders nor did it possess necessary experience and training for operations in a foreign land like Khurasan. Hence, the abandonment of the Khurasan adventure was inevitable. But it caused incalculable financial losses to the treasury. Disbandment of the army led to unemployment and loss of prestige to the sultan. 

Nagarkot: 

In 1337, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq led an expedition against the fort of Nagarkot in the Kangra Valley. Nagarkot had defied the authority of the Turks since the days of Mahmud Ghazni. Even though Alauddin Khilji had conquered the entire country, the fort of Nagarkot had remained in the hands of a Hindu ruler. When Sultan Muhammad besieged the fort its Raja offered stiff resistance. But he was defeated and compelled to submit to the authority of Delhi. 

Quarchal: 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq directed an expedition against Quarchal situated in the Kumaon hills. According to Ibn Battuta, Quarchal was situated at ten stages from Delhi. The Quarchal expedition was directed to quell the hostilities of the hill tribes on the northern frontier, who must have defied the imperial authority. The initial attack by the sultanate army was successful. But the mountainous region and the incessant rains paralyzed the supplies to the troops and the army suffered heavy casualties. However, the military disaster was not politically fruitless. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was able to obtain from the raja of Quarchal the promise of a tribute. But for this, an unnecessarily heavy price had to be paid in terms of loss of human lives. 

Relation with China: 

During the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq the power of the Mongol rulers of China was on the decline. Consequently, many of them tried to establish friendly relations with the sultan of India. The Mongol emperor of China, Toghan Timur sent an envoy to Delhi in 1341 seeking Muhammad’s permission to re-build Buddhist temples in the Himalayan region. The soldiers of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had demolished these Buddhist temples during the Quarchal expedition. The sultan reciprocated by sending Ibn Battuta as his special envoy to the imperial court of China in 1342. Regarding the reconstruction of the Buddhist temples, the sultan sent a word to the Chinese emperor that according to the laws of Islam no permission could be granted for their rebuilding unless jizya was paid. 

The Deccan: 

In 1326 the governor of Sagar near Gulbarga and the cousin of the sultan, Bahauddin Gursasp rebelled against the sultan. The wind of rebellion spread across Anegundi and Dwarasamudra. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq took advantage of these rebellions to extend the frontiers of the sultanate to the western sea-cost and the far south. In the course of suppression of these revolts, the sultan annexed Anegundi, Dwarasamudra and Mabar and incorporated them as provinces of the sultanate. In this way, the entire Indian sub-continent came under the direct rule of the sultan. But the territorial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate to the far south proved disastrous to the sultan and the sultanate. His Deccan and South Indian adventure left Muhammad Bin Tughlaq physically exhausted politically dissipated and financially ruined. The process of assimilation without taking into account the prevalent realities aroused the hostility and suspicion of the local people. In the absence of faster means of communication it was impossible to secure a permanent hold over the Deccan and South India. 

Administrative Policy: 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was an ambitious and a diligent ruler. He adopted new and revolutionary policies in the matter of administration. He had a fancy for innovations, both in foreign and domestic affairs. In domestic policy he introduced certain experiments with best intentions. However, these innovations and experiments ended in failure and adversely affected the fortunes of the Delhi sultanate. 

Revenue Reforms: 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was keen to improve the revenue administration of the sultanate. Soon after his accession he promulgated a number of ordinances for the improvement of the revenue administration. As a first step, he ordered the compilation of a detailed register of income and expenditure of all provinces of the sultanate. The governors of the provinces were directed to send to the center all relevant records for the compilation of the register. The chief motive of the sultan in undertaking this exercise was to introduce a uniform standard of land revenue and to see that no village remained unassessed. A department called diwan-i-mustakhriz was established to recover dues and arrears. 

Taxation in the Doab: 

In order to raise resources of the state the sultan increased the taxes by ten to twenty times more. Barani ascribed this measure to the sultan’s tyranny and bloodthirstiness, and spoke in detail about the suffering caused to the people due to rigorous exaction of taxes. The increase in taxes in the Doab coincided with the outbreak of famine owing to the failure of rains. As a consequence the rich were reduced to poverty, the cultivators abandoned their lands and vast areas became depopulated. According to Dr. A.L. Srivastava, the sultan made an attempt to help the cultivators by giving them loans to buy seeds, bullocks etc. He also made arrangements for digging of wells for irrigation, but the policy failed. 

Department of Agriculture: 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq realized that for an uninterrupted flow of revenue into the treasury, improvement of agriculture was essential. For this purpose he set up a separate department of agriculture under a minister, amir-i-kohi. Its main task was to increase the land under cultivation. According to Dr. A. L. Srivastava, a large tract of land sixty miles square in area was chosen for state farming. The land was cultivated and different crops were sown in rotation. In three years the government spent over seventy lakh tankas on this experiment. In spite of all efforts the experiment ended in a failure and the scheme was abandoned after three years. Poor quality of land chosen for the experiment, corruption among the officials and indifference of cultivators were some of the reasons for the failure of the well-intentioned experiment. Moreover, the scheme was given up in haste. Besides, three years was a short period for any tangible result. 

Transfer of the Capital (1327): 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s most daring and equally misunderstood measure was an attempt to transfer the capital from Delhi to Devagiri, renamed as Daulatabad. Several reasons have been ascribed for undertaking this disastrous decision. With the extension of territories of the sultanate, specially further south, the sultan desired to have a capital. Devagiri (Daulatabad) with its strategic location and impregnable fort was the natural choice of the sultan. Besides, Daulatabad being in the interior of the country was considerably safe from the Mongol invasions. As the southern India was rich in resources, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq thought it proper to exploit its wealth. 

In 1327, the sultan along with the Queen Mother and the members of the royal household left for Daulatabad. They were followed by the government and state officials and nobles as well as by all the people of Delhi, who were ordered to migrate to Daulatabad. According to Ibn Battuta, the mass exodus was enforced with such severity that even a crippled and a blind man could not escape. The sultan made excellent arrangements for the comfort of the travellers all along the seven hundred miles long route, providing them with free food and shelter. 

The whole exercise of the transfer of the capital proved to be a costly and miserable failure. The people of Delhi, according to Barani, could not endure the exile and suffering. Daulatabad was not large enough to accommodate the large number of immigrants. The Muslims who were accustomed to living in Delhi with its predominantly Islamic character found it difficult to live amidst the predominantly Hindu area like Daulatabad. The sultan also realized that as it was difficult to control the south from the north as he could not control the north from the south. Thus, the sultan allowed those who wished to return to Delhi to do so eight years after the transfer of the capital. However, Daulatabad was abandoned as the imperial capital after seventeen years. Daulatabad remained, as Lane-Poole observes, ‘a monument of misdirected energy.’ 

Currency Reforms: 

Besides the attempt to transfer the capital, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s reign was best known for his failed currency reforms. He introduced the currency reforms during the year 1329-1330 by adjusting the new coins to correspond the changed value of gold and silver. His new coins were noted for their design and execution. A new coin called dokani was introduced. Quaranic verses were inscribed on the coin. Small coins were minted in large quantities for the convenience of the people. Thus, he earned the epithet as, the ‘Prince of Moneyers.’ 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq also initiated a new experiment in coinage by issuing token currency. According to Barani, in order to meet demands of ever-increasing military expenses the sultan ordered the copper and brass tokens to be treated as legal tender in all monetary transactions, like gold and silver coins. The other reasons behind this novel experiment were that the treasury had been drained due to wars and rebellions and also by costly experiments. 

The consequence of the experiment in token currency was disastrous. The sultan failed to take precautionary measures against counterfeit coins with which the market was flooded. According to the natural law of bad money driving out the good, the old sliver coins disappeared from circulation, while the copper tokens circulated but became practically valueless. According to Barani, the house of every Hindu was turned into an unauthorized mint. The farmers paid their revenue in token currency; people paid their taxes in it and hoarded silver and gold coins. Foreign merchants used the token currency to purchase Indian commodities, but refused to accept them while selling their goods. This resulted in economic chaos. Trade was paralyzed and government incurred heavy losses. Accepting the failure of his experiment, the sultan withdrew the copper and brass coins and ordered the people to exchange them with gold and silver coins from the treasury. Thus, the treasury was depleted. The sultan became bitter and his severity increased and the people became rebellious. 

The failure of the experiment in token currency was due to the absence of government monopoly over the issue of tokens. It was difficult to distinguish between coins minted by the state and counterfeit coins manufactured by private agencies. Even if the technical difficulties could be got over, the success of the scheme depended on the credit of the royal exchequer, that is, the confidence of the people in the sultan’s government. The scheme was not eccentric. It failed, as proper care for its implementation was not taken. 

 Administration of Justice: 

The sultan was known for his sense of justice. Special officers held a durbar every Monday and Thursday in the diwan-i-khas to listen to public complaints. The sadr-i-jahan or the chief justice could be directly approached. The mir-i-dad saw to it that the officials did not take the law in their hand. Cases of capital punishment were recorded by the munsif. Torture was used to force confessions. Even the sayyids and the ulema were not spared from the law. 

Relation with the Ulema: 

Like Alauddin Khilji, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was determined to keep the secular issue free from the control of the ulema. He did not go out of his way to defy the shariat. But at the same time he did not strain himself to win over the support on of the ulema on important matters. The sultan wanted to make himself not only the absolute head of the state but also claimed himself to be ‘the shadow of God.’ He dropped all references to the Caliphate. This naturally turned the ulema hostile towards the sultan. Initially the sultan did not think it necessary to seek the investiture from the Caliphate. But, in spite of his justice, generosity and personal ability, the sultan found that he was becoming more and more unpopular. Thus, he changed his attitude towards the Caliphate and sought confirmation from the Caliph of Egypt of his position as the sovereign. He removed his own name from the coins and inserted that of the Caliph. However, these measures did not restore the popularity of the sultan, neither was he spared from the recurring rebellions which ultimately proved detrimental to his authority and ruinous to the sultanate. 

Rebellions and Break up of the Sultanate: 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s reign was seriously distracted by sporadic rebellions. The areas affected by these rebellions ranged from Multan in the northwest to Bengal in the east and Mabar in the south. The sultan had to face as many as twenty-two rebellions during his rule. Among these, the rebellion of Mabar in 1335 was of a special significance. The governor of Mabar made a successful attempt for independence and the sultan’s effort to suppress the rebellion ended in failure. Thus, independence of Mabar within a decade of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s accession indicated the beginning of the break up of the Delhi Sultanate. 

As many as sixteen rebellions that followed the Mabar revolt proved successful and led to the foundation of independent kingdoms. More serious rebellions broke out in the Deccan. The Hindu rebellion in the Deccan led to the foundation of the Vijayanagara kingdom in 1336 and the revolt of the foreign amirs led to the establishment of the Bahmani kingdom in 1347. In Malwa and Gujarat also the disaffected foreign nobles rose in open defiance of the sultan’s authority as they suffered the loss or curtailment of their privileges. Mabar and Bengal were lost to the sultanate and Muhammad Bin Tughlaq made no serious attempts to prevent the disintegration of the sultanate. The rebellions of Taghi in Gujarat took a serious turn. The rebel was hunted down by the sultan at Thatta in Sindh. He had to spend three years in order to bring peace and order to the rebellion infested province. From Gujarat, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq proceeded to Sindh in pursuit of the rebel. But on his way to Thatta the sultan fell ill and died on 20 March 1351. In the words of Badauni, “The king was freed from his people and they from their king.” 

An estimate of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq: 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was the most remarkable personality among the sultans of Delhi. He was deeply interested in the pursuit of widely differing arts and sciences as logic, philosophy, astronomy and mathematics. He had knowledge of Persian classics. He composed verses of considerable literary merit both in Persian and Arabic. He was an excellent calligrapher, a lover of music and a patron of letters and arts. He even developed love for Sanskrit. He possessed great memory and had insatiable thirst for knowledge. Ibn Battuta regards him as a ‘wonder of the age’. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was deeply religious. He lived a remarkably simple life. He was regular in his prayers and charitable in his disposition. Sometimes his generosity exceeded his resources. He was a brave and experienced general, a well-intentioned ruler and a lover of justice. 

The above observation is only one side of Muhammad’s personality and character. His personality and character was so complex and enigmatic that it had defied correct analysis. That is why scholars have formed widely divergent estimates of his character. He was impatient, egotistic, tyrannical and eccentric. Due to these contradictions in his character, scholars like Elphistone expressed the doubt “whether he was not affected by some degree of insanity.” 

To promote public welfare, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq introduced many reforms. But some of them were so novel and revolutionary in character that people failed to understand their significance. Some of his military adventures and administrative measures, such as the transfer of capital and the introduction of token currency had been condemned as instances of his insanity. However, such an opinion is not justified. By themselves these administrative experiments were excellent, but Muhammad did not realize the practical difficulties of implementing such novel experiments. He was much advanced of his time and the people could not visualize their utility. He has been held partly responsible for the decline and disintegration of the Delhi sultanate. His policy and actions, no doubt undermined the stability of the Delhi Sultanate but it is important to note that the final end of the empire did not come till a century and three-quarters after the death of this controversial ruler, whom S.R. Sharma has described as the ‘Wisest fool in the Crescendom’. According to Lane Poole “With the best intentions, excellent ideas but no balance or patience, no sense of proportion, Muhammad Tughlaq was a transcendent failure.”